We often hear reports in the press about rebel factions, drug cartels, traffickers and other criminal gangs being driven underground when their dens and hide outs are raided. In the past this terminology has probably been viewed metaphorically. The discovery of criminality or terrorist activities in one building leading to a simple change of building.
Unusual events around the world, now highlighted by two distinct battle fronts making use of underground warfare, has shed new light on a global underground infrastructure that takes advantage of many existing features. Underground spaces include ancient labyrinthine tunnels carved out of rock under ancient cities and monoliths, millions of miles of mine shafts, natural caves, faults, aquifers, utility tunnels big enough to drive articulated trucks through, underground military facilities, nuclear bunkers, war time factories, city sewers and mazes of freshly dug rat runs across national borders and deep in to target territories. If an underground space is large enough for a person to walk or crawl, dragging their kit through, then it can be used for battle.
In the previous article Axis of Resistance we looked at the distribution of countries in the Middle East, within which Islamic fundamentalist terrorist groups operate, particularly ones working as proxies for Iran. These groups have developed a form of guerilla warfare using underground systems. By digging tunnel and bunker complexes that are hard to detect by air or satellite, relatively small numbers of fighters can have the edge over ground-based enemy troops.
The inhospitable, arid nature of some landscapes in the Middle East makes sneaking around undetected above ground challenging. There is very little to no cover in some areas. Enemy militia familiar with the lay of the land, may readily commandeer vantage points that allow them to take pot shots at their opposition. Vantage points from high ground, such as the Golan Heights, would provide high visibility over the lowlands deep in to Syria and Israel.
Roman architectural genius
In 2009 Der Spiegel International published an article ‘The Ancient World’s Longest Underground Aqueduct’ examining a 106 kilometre (66 miles) long stretch of underground aqueduct, as part of a bigger system which delivered water to cities in eastern Palestine. The system was found by Mathias Doring from Darmstadt, Germany whose detailed paper is linked here. It is called the Gadara Aqueduct or Qanat Fir'aun and dates from the Roman Empire. It comprises of ‘dark caverns plastered with waterproof mortar’, currently occupied by bats. It runs 70-80 meters in depth (similar to the Hamas tunnels), falls at approximately 0.3 degrees decline, and is split in to four identifiable tunnel sections measuring 1, 11, 34 and 60 km each. Terminating at Gadara, the system supplied the cities of the ‘Decapolis’, a league of 10 Greek cities, 9 of which lay to the east of the Jordan river.
The structure is dug out of hard limestone and wear indicates that large volumes of water were channeled through it. The shafts to the aqueduct were dug with steps to provide access. These were then filled in presumably on completion. The start of the pipeline was not located but the first section was identified at Wadi Ash-Ashallalah at 70 metres depth. It passed through Abila, Dar’a and Gadara and other accounts also mention Dille, Daal and Dar’a. In the schematic the aqueduct follows the line of the Wadi Ash-Ashallalah valley in the southern section. The northern section that is documented from Dille was apparently fed by what is now a dry dam, and a further 10 springs fed in to the aqueduct along its path.
The stepped shafts were dug largely in excess of a 45 degree angle, in to limestone rock. These accesses were spaced between 20-50 metres apart. The tunnels were dug from each shaft in both directions so tunnelers met in the middle. CO2 would have been released by lime mixing with water in the deeper parts of the aqueduct. Coating the tunnels in volcanic ash or ground charcoal made them waterproof, would protect the clean water from contaminated run off, but also reduce CO2 build up. This could have allowed passage through the tunnels by foot. Sections surveyed measured between 2.3 metres and 3.5 metres in height with approximately a quarter to third of the base taken up with water, silt and other material. It is likely to have been higher when the dam was feeding in to the aqueduct. A number of lengthy offshoots were dug but the archeologists believe these were dug in error due to the complicated terrain. They were unable to survey these due to low oxygen.
The archeologists were also unable to survey the Syrian to Jordanian border section as indicated by the dotted line, so could not verify if the aqueduct was intact in that area. The aqueduct terminates at Gadara (Hamat Gader) which lies just inside the current border of Israel, where the ancient mineral springs tourist site is situated. This area was claimed by Israel after the Six Day War in 1967 but Syria still disputes the claim. There are two tunnels which terminate under the Acropolis. The presence of this system and the other tunnels may go some way to explaining why Israel may have wanted this particular section of land.
More Ancient Underground Structures
During the early days of the Roman Empire in 396 BCE Roman armies laid seige to Veii to the north of Rome. This was the first time that soldiers would be paid to fight from the public purse. After a long period of seige the Romans were said to have dug a tunnel underneath the city walls and sacked the city. Some researchers believed there were already man made (sewers) tunnels from the city that may have been used.
In Acre, North West Israel, a 150 metre long tunnel of significant height and width was discovered by accident in 1994. The tunnel dates from 1099 when the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon under a French Knight made their fortress there. The tunnel served as a passageway for the Knights Templar from the fortress to the port. The tunnel was lost after the Mamluk invasion of the 13th Century.
There is a complex of tunnels and chambers underneath Jerusalem. Hezekiah’s tunnel is 1750 feet long and was cut in a weaving formation following weaknesses in the bedrock. In around 700 BCE it was constructed to bring water from Gihon Spring, which originated in the Kidron Valley.
In 1996 an Israeli archeologist, accompanied by Israeli soldiers, opened up an artifical blockage to the Western Wall tunnel which opened the way to another 1000 foot section of the underground tunnel. This section traverses underneath Temple Mount, the site where Jewish Temples were torn down in succession over the centuries by occupying armies. This is now the location of the Muslim sanctuary al-Aqsa. After years of wrangling about access to this subterranean passageway, Benjamin Netanyahu gave the go ahead for the tunnel block to be removed. This of course led to uproar in Palestinian communities, who believed that the reopening of a tunnel for tourist purposes, would lead to the undermining of al-Aqsa and the invasion by Israelis and foreigners in to the Muslim quarter. This is said to be the main reason the Palestinian/Israeli peace process stalled at the time.
There are many other ancient man-made and natural tunnels and caves in the Mediterranean belt of the Middle East. Some have been designated tourist attractions, others remain archeological preservation sites, whilst others may lie as yet officially undiscovered.
Modern Tunnel Warfare
Underground warfare has been part of modern military training for some years. The British Desert Rats (in this article C Squadron, 1st The Queen’s Dragoon Guards) regularly train in underground settings to hone their combat and clearance skills. They are undoubtedly one of many British Units training and engaging in tunnel warfare. Major Bryn Williams speaks about the skills built in training in this challenging environment in comparison to above ground battle: ‘“Everything you can do above ground; you can do underground. However, you have to think how you are going to achieve that same outcome. Soldiers must use their imagination to produce innovative plans and execute them with a professional mindset. This training makes troops think about what is required as the environment is extremely challenging. Basics such as communication and the ability to observe are still extant.”’
A system of tunnels was dug by the Viet Minh early in the Vietnam war to allow them to wage guerilla warfare against French colonial forces. ‘Tunnel rats was the term coined for infantrymen who were small enough to fit in to these tunnels – no taller than 5ft 5inches. The first tunnel rats were from the Australian 3 Field Force engineering unit who began operations in 1956. US troops followed the Australians in to underground operations. Their task was reconnaissance, capture and tunnel destruction, which they did whilst navigating a network of booby traps.
In Feb 2022 journalist Lily Hamourtziadou of OpenDemocracyNet wrote an article about tunnel warfare being waged by Islamic State over the last decades. She gives the examples of Islamic State tunnel systems throughout Iraq including Mosul, Qaraqosh, Tora Bora (caves and tunnels) and Fallujah. Areas in Syria also had tunnel systems crossing over in to Iraq including al-Qa’im, al-Hasakeh and Deir ez-Zor and systems were also found in Afghanistan.
Mosul is described as being a spherical battlefield by Iraqi special forces and allied forces as there are so many tunnels underneath it. Islamic State used miles of tunnels that created a honeycomb under the city. After areas were presumed secure snipers would appear out of yet another tunnel. The same underground system was found under Fallujah.
Sinjar in Iraq was also riddled with tunnels. Around 70 were discovered by Kurdish and Iraqi forces in 2016. Note the use of the word ‘rat-holes’ in the title. UK press has recently made reference to a number of rat infestations above ground, which might indicate the displacement of rats, and any other body, by incoming flood water in the UK.
Into the New Millenium
In April 2020 Iraqi forces together with coalition forces took out a set of ISIS caves in the Hamrin Mountain region north of Mosul bordering Turkey and northern Iraqi Kurdish territory. Iraqi forces then went in to sweep the area to deal with any fighters who had scattered. An ‘intricate system of tunnels’ ran from the caves, which ISIS were using to move weapons and protect their leaders.
In Spring 2021 the British Royal Air Force then took out between 50-100 more ISIS caves in the Makhmur mountains also in the Hamrin Mountain region.
We can see from this map below the distribution of factions through Syria and Iraq. Assad regime supporting areas line the western border, adjoined with Lebanon, part of the border in to the Golan Heights to Israel and the north western border of Jordan. Sunni insurgents are positioned around Aleppo and borders to Turkey and north Lebanon. They are also present to the north east and south west of Damascus, bordering the Golan Heights and Jordan. Islamic State occupies a swathe of land from Damascus, north to Raqqa and surrounding areas, crossing in to Iraq.
Syria - New tunneling technology
Brigadier-General Lu-ayy Shehadeh of the Syrian Army, President Assad’s force, revealed in an interview in March 2019, that the Syrian Civil War had taught them some skills, and given them tools and technology that allowed them to fight their adversaries underground. The Brigadier-General talks about these tunnels being used not only defensively but offensively. This would undoubtedly be through the border with Israel at Golan Heights. In fact, on the 23rd October we detected a long cluster of heatspots spanning approximately 21 kilometres in length and a few kilometres wide along the Israeli side of the border.
This is the video from MEMRI which shows the Bridgadier-General telling the interviewer about their tunneling advances. In it the interviewer makes clear that the enemy is Israel, and their compass is pointing at Jerusalem. The implication being that their goal is to take Jerusalem entirely in to Muslim hands, regardless of the Jewish and Christian inhabitants and ancient architecture in Jerusalem.
Whilst Syria was not included in the list of proxies shown as being part of the Axis of Resistance, it is apparent, from this article by the Atlantic Council in 2020, that both Russia and Iran have considerable influence over the Syrian military. Since the beginning of the Syrian Civil War in 2011 Assad’s control has waned, as both foreign powers involve themselves ever more closely with the command structure of the Syrian army, ensuring they appoint the senior ranks. Russia is now, according to the article, almost entirely in charge, with some input from Iran, of the Syrian military operational strategy and battle planning. They have also worked on integrating all of the militia groups in to the army.
Considering these points above, it is likely that the Syrian army, now effectively seconded to Russia and Iran, are likely to be actively at the Golan Heights border using tunnel warfare as well as overground attacks. It also seems likely, looking at the dates of the interview and article, that the Syrian Army have been provided both with tunneling training and equipment by either Iran or Russia, or both. The support from Russia and Iran is echoed by the findings from the CIA World Factbook. They are unable to give a strong estimate on number of troops in the Syrian army though, as national service is compulsory for men between the age of 18-45, the majority of the army will be made up of young conscripts.
This method of installing hand-picked military command structure is a Soviet era technique which was used to embed eyes, ears and control in the top tiers of client regimes. This would ensure loyalty to the USSR by means of informing and acting swiftly on any dissent within the ranks.
Ukraine - Soviet Era Bunkers & Tunnels
During the siege of the Mariupol in Spring 2022 by Russian troops, Ukrainian soldiers and civilians were hiding out in approximately 24 kilometres of Soviet tunnels and bunkers underneath the Azovstal steel works in the south of Ukraine, near the Black Sea. The works were dug during the Stalin era probably as nuclear bunkers. John Lawson produced a graphic of the estimated layout of the tunnel and bunker system as seen below. The invasion of Ukraine seems less coincidental if viewed geopolitically, given Russian’s close ties with Iran and desire to prevent a closer Ukrainian alliance with the EU and West.
This siege marked the start of the public awareness crash course in global tunnel warfare.
Hamas and Gaza
In 2021 Hamas leader ‘Yehya Al-Sinwar, said: "They started saying they destroyed 100 km of Hamas tunnels. I am telling you, the tunnels we have in the Gaza Strip exceed 500 km. Even if their narrative is true, they only destroyed 20% of the tunnels.”’ This parcel of land is only 25 kilometres long by 12.5km at its very widest point, covering 365 square kilometres. Approximately 400 km of tunnel must lie underneath the entire strip, under roads and buildings, potentially undermining the foundations by virtue of their existence. If they run at a depth of 80 metres, as stated, explosions within the tunnels would undermine surface structures further.
In the book by Alan Dershowitz ‘Terror Tunnels: The case for Israel’s just war against Hamas’ the author talks through the issues IDF have had, in that they knew where a number of tunnel entrances were in the Gaza Strip, but could not destroy them because they were situated in Mosques, schools, hospitals and private houses. The same tunnel features that we will see in video clip links later used by Hezbollah, were also being used in the Hamas tunnels. Israeli forces had apparently been very concerned about these tunnels since the kidnap of Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit in 2006. They held him for five years and used him in negotiations for the release of Hamas prisoners.
Dershowitz recounts how, on June 12th 2014, three Israeli teenagers were kidnapped, presumably via the tunnels. (p.97) Sadly the teenagers were found dead, which prompted a reaction from some local Israelis, who kidnapped a 16 year old Palestinian boy and murdered him in retaliation. Hostilities escalated with Hamas launching heavy rocket fire towards Israel, and Israel responding with Operation Protective Edge to suppress the rocket attacks. They also called up 40,000 Israeli reservists for support. The Egyptian government drew up a cease fire agreement which Prime Minister Mahmoud Abbas and Benjamin Netanyahu agreed to.
On July 16 UNRWA reported Hamas was hiding rockets in their compound. At the same time despite the hours old cease fire, Hamas sent 13 armed fighters through in to Israel, with the clear intention of abducting more Israelis.
Israel carried out a number of humanitarian cease fires during this period of hostilities, with a 72 hour cease fire starting on the 31st July. Just 24 hours in to the cease fire, gunmen emerged from a tunnel on the Rafah border. They killed two Israeli soldiers and captured another, who was later declared to also have been killed.
In Rafah approximately 37 Hamas tunnels were identified and destroyed by Egyptian military in 2018. These ran between Gaza and the Egyptian Sinai across a 12.5 kilometre stretch. That is one tunnel approximately every 0.33 kilometres. They also detained 18,965 illegal immigrants coming through the border over that period. It is unclear if they were given safe passage through or from Gaza from the north and if they were moved via the tunnels.
This video by Dateline in 2008 talks about the blockade instigated by the Egyptians when Hamas seized power, effectively cutting off their sources of certain goods. They describe how easy it was to become addicted to the good money paid for digging these tunnels and from the sale of goods such as cigarettes and drugs brought in from Egypt.
One of the technical issues of destroying these tunnels is how to close them permanently so they cannot be redug. A new type of bomb, a sponge bomb, has been developed, which houses chemicals in separate chambers. When the bomb goes off the chemicals react and form an expanding ‘sponge’ which then hardens like rock in to the void. This would fill the entire tunnel space, rather than leaving debris from a normal bomb, which could be picked through and removed. It also reduces the risk of tunnel collapse and damage to buildings overhead.
The map in this article by the Wall Street Journal shows some of the estimated tunnel positions within Gaza but does not include tunnels which extend beyond the land borders in to Israel and Egypt. A video from MEMRI in June 2021, after a bombardment by Israel, shows some of the underground bunkers and armed soldiers manouvering inside the tunnels. The bunker rooms appear to be lined with thick concrete slabs.
Operation Northern Shield - Hezbollah
In 2019 the UN investigated a Hezbollah tunnel running from the Lebanese side of the border in to Israel as shown in this video, and confirmed what the Israeli Defense Force (IDF) had found the previous January (2018). The tunnels are used to gain underground entry in to Israel to launch surprise attacks. Attacks do not only come from shelling over ground. The construction of these tunnels is in violation of UNSCR 1701.
More tunnels were identified as part of Operation Northern Shield. CNN covered the discovery of one of four tunnels in 2018. This clip shows the IDF setting off a charge in to the tunnel and two occupants make a run for it. Another tunnel was blocked in 2018 by pouring concrete in to the opening. The progress of the concrete was tracked and shown to spill out over the forecourt of a factory site, after passing underneath residential areas. Yet another tunnel was identified in January 2019 starting from the village Ramyeh, leading in to Israel. The tunnel reached a depth of 180ft.
Jonathan Conricus did a live broadcast on various social media platforms on 8th December 2018 at the beginning of Operation Northern Shield. He talks about how, after Hezbollah fought above ground against Israel in 2006, they changed tactics, by reverting to tunneling in to Israel in contravention of UNSCR 1701. This is when they started to use civilian residences and other buildings along the Lebanon border to allow them to construct the tunnels without detection. The use of civilian property for this purpose is also against various UN regulations. Throughout these videos you can see ventilation pipes, rail tracks, communications, power and light and the tunnels are approximately standing height. The cutting machinery used, a semi rounded tool, seems to be hand-held as the cuts are not evenly spaced. The tool would be designed to cut the limestone in to chunks that are easy to remove through the confines of the tunnel.
Until the October 7th attack by Hamas on Israel and its citizens, the public’s view of terrorist attacks was relatively fragmented. The relationships between tunneling terrorists from Gaza seemed to have little to do with Soviet era bunkers in Ukraine. However, as alliances have been brought sharply in to view, we can see a pattern of underground warfare from Russia all the way through to the Egyptian Sinai and beyond. And if the tunneling equipment is advanced enough, as it seems to be by the Syrian military interview above, then the chances of similar warfare techniques already being used under Europe, Africa, the Americas, the Far East and Oceania is very high.
On X this morning the Ayatollah Khamenei, Leader of Iran, wrote an ominous message to Muslims around the world
‘The Muslim world mustn’t forget it was the US, France, & Britain that stood against Islam & the oppressed Palestinians. The Muslim world must realize this isn’t just about the Zionist regime & must also consider those countries in their dealings, analyses, & equations.’
We must ask ourselves, how far have Iran, the Axis of Resistance, Russia and allies really been able to move underground to date? Is it really as bad as the heatspot layer looks on Zoom.earth?
Thank you for the laughs and giggles. Quoting Alan Dershowitz, that shining beacon of integrity, was of course what made the article so believable.